Katherine’s blog

This is my draft for the final term paper, but i still have a lot of revisions to do and adding of information from new research. I’ll probably be able to talk about other things during my presentation that are not yet in this draft.

Venetian Clothing and Fashions of the Early Modern Period

            In almost every culture, there is a distinct way in which people express themselves and their heritage through clothing. Fashion communicates several aspects of a society and changing trends. Although there are many distinctive fashions in different cultures, there are some that stand out more than others and inspire future trends. Venice, a spectacular lagoon city in northern Italy, was not only innovative and individual with their clothing during the Sixteenth Century in Italy, but throughout Europe and beyond. There are countless elements that reveal much about the Venetian culture through their fashions and clothing. Social and gender roles played a large role in determining the different classes and styles of Venetian clothing, along with the popular courtesans who were elaborate and inspirational in their fashion. The materials used for these beautiful clothes, such as silk, were traded through the textile industry and evidently caused an exchange of cultures (such as Eastern cultures) that Venice could see that the rest of Italy could not. These paintings are our first hand look of how the Venetian people of the Early Modern Period dressed. Through fashion, we are able to understand how the social, political, and economic aspects of Early Modern Venice had an affect on the styles and clothing of the Venetians.

            One of the major factors that contribute to the way Venetians dress is gender and social roles. An important distinction is the role of women in Venice during the Renaissance period. Once said by Ludovico Dolce, “But in a woman one does not look for profound eloquence or subtle intelligence, or exquisite prudence, or talent for living, or administration of the republic or justice, or anything else except for chastity” (Brown). This quote sums up the attitudes men had against women in Venetian society. As seen in Carpaccio’s painting of 1510, Two Ladies on a Terrace, aristocratic women were freed from going out to the city to do daily shopping, but they were only allowed to experience the outdoors on ‘altane’ and terraces of their homes. They become allegories of female virtue as they sit surrounded by symbols of chastity, nobility, wealth, and marriage. The only time they could be seen in public is if they attended church or certain ceremonies. Unmarried daughters were especially kept hidden from society, and were heavily veiled when they went into the city.  Women of nobility dressed elaborately not only for themselves, but for the status of their husbands.

            Venetian women were confined to watching Venice from the windows of their homes, even when Venice was under no threat from the outside world. When they went out on rare occasions, such as festivals, there were benches placed in the Piazza or the Campi to accommodate privileged ladies. As they walked out into the streets of Venice to attend mass at their church, there was a clear distinction of what women wore according to their marital status. Most of these women wore long veils, some that touch the ground, yet there were different color distinctions. Black veils were worn by either wives or widows and white or yellow veils worn by maids. Another interesting feature of these veiled women is the fact that when they go into the city, they reveal the cleavage of their breasts, yet their faces are covered. Although Venetian women of quality enjoyed some freedom to explore the city, it was not easy because of their difficulty of walking around in their high platform shoes, called chopines. These clogs were meant to portray women as the ideal Venetian beauties, which included them being very tall. It allows these industrious household managers of their private homes to become symbols of ideal beauty in public space (essay on chopines). The shoes were made of wood or cork, covered with leather or fabric, and elaborated painted or gilded (history of cosume). They appear to be beautiful, however, they were subject to pain and immobility. Women of wealth were often supported and assisted by men or other women so that they wouldn’t fall. The wearing of chopines is symbolic of Venetian female beauty, yet it is also symbolic of how they are purely objects of attraction with restrictions of enjoying the freedom of the city (essay on chopines).

            As the 15^th century came to a close, and the beginnings of the 16^th century emerged, a difference in the styles of these two time periods became evident. During the 15^th century, sleeves were not as important as they had become. Sleeves were often tied onto the camicia, or shift, and poufed out of the openings of the dress. Also, the sleeves were not always integrating into the gown. Often there was a sleeveless over-dress that was worn over the undergarment with sleeves attached. Carpaccio’s Legend of the True Cross: Prince Arrives in Brittany of 1495 shows how the sleeves come from underneath the sleeveless overdress.  In general, sleeves were more form fitting to the body and were not the dominant part of the garment. Durer’s Venetian Lady from 1495 illustrates the styles of the time. High waistlines, elaborately patterned over dresses, long trains, and structurally fitted sleeves were styles that are present in this drawing. The waistlines were extremely high, just under the breasts, and the sleeves consisted of a snug-fitted slower and upper section. The neckline was at a moderate position, where some women, mostly older married women, showed cleavage (realm of venus).

            However, styles changed in the 16^th century. The size of the sleeves became large were a dominant element of the gown. Different variations of the style of the sleeve also evolved. One style was the very large, angel-winged style with opening slits to reveal the camicia underneath it. Another style is the unrestrained, smaller, and less angel-winged sleeve. Often seen with slits or openings, women who wore this style usually wore under-sleeves. Lastly, there was the style of the large tube-like sleeve that was cuffed at the bottoms with no openings or slits (realm of venus). From 1510 to 1530, elite women’s sleeves were large, full, and patterned after the men’s togas. A woman who wore a bell shaped sleeve, or a dogale, was of the highest rank of the Togati, the male patricians and citizens over 25 years old, and were considered a provocative display of wealth. The comeo sleeve, more common in Venice, was worn by the lower ranks of the Togati (pearl of venice).

Another important feature of 16^th century dress was the bodice. Between the years 1510 and 1540, bodices all had wide, boat-shaped necklines, which ended at or above the waistline. This part of the dress was tightly fitted to cut just above the tops of the breasts. Some other bodices had an opening down the front of the bodice that was closed with ribbons, cut so low that the breasts were just covered by a chemise. Other bodices rarely seen were worn with a fur caplet. The purpose of a bodice was most likely to enhance the shape of the woman, and the women most likely had some sort of additional support (pearl of Venice). By the mid-1510’s, the neckline had already dropped drastically, revealing more of the woman’s chest. Necklines also extended almost off-the-shoulder in either a boat-shaped or V-shaped fashion. An example of a gown during the early 16^th century is Palma Vecchio’s Three Sisters painted from 1518 to 1520. This image illustrates several of the main features of the dress of this time. Plunging, boat-shaped necklines that extend from one shoulder to the other are present, along with the variations of sleeves. The figure at left wears the large, angel-winged shape sleeve, the central figure wears the tube-shaped, cuffed style, and the figure at right wears large sleeves with lower, unrestrained under-sleeves and openings.  Not only did the structural style of the garment change, but the use of colors was also modified. The 16^th century dress commonly used all shades of red and deep hues of green, which changed from the 15^th century’s shades of mid shades of red, green, blue, and gold, along with pink, orange, black, and cream (realm of venus).

A major social group of Venetian women during the Early Modern Period was the courtesan group. While the average Venetian women sat watching the city from the windows of their homes, courtesans, usually unmarried, enjoyed the freedom to become educated, literate, and musically gifted (Brown). Courtesans were mostly found in the northern cities of Italy beginning in the fifteenth century. These women not always performed this occupation out of choice, but sometimes in order to survive due to the death of a husband or father. Wealthy men of Venice attended what were called Salons, which was for private entertainment, where courtesans would perform. Although many assume that courtesans were associated with prostitution, not all commanded attention and patronage with sex. Some were considered to be “cortigana onesta,” or “honest courtesans,” who were of the highest rank courtesan. They were the highest paid and requested, and were not associated with sex (Gilded City). Prostitutes were mainly associated with the selling of sex, but courtesans brought pleasure to their patrons in the ways of their wit, charm, intelligence, high level of education, knowledge of politics, fashion sense, beauty, and the mastery of the realm of imagination (Bella Donna). “Courtesans built extraordinary reputations and their skills rivaled those of educated nobles in society.” A well-known courtesan, Veronica Franco, for example was very successful. She wrote and published poetry, actively participated in the literary academy of Domenico Venier, and was patronized by noblemen and King Henry III of France (Essay on Chopines). What made courtesans appealing was not only their sexuality and sensuousness, but also their autonomy and independence (Brown).

            During the early Sixteenth century, when courtesans were beginning to emerge, they were not easy to recognize in the city. They often wore the same clothing as the common women of Venice. As time elapsed, Venetian courtesans began to break the many laws of dress passed by the Senate and start new trends. The way the courtesans dressed reflected how they were not restricted to certain regulations put onto the common Venetian woman. One of the trends they began was the wearing of a pearl necklace and the heavy use of lace. Their garments were sometimes seen made with silk from the Silk Road trade route (Bella Donna). They were also known for bleaching their hair by using a bleaching paste and sitting in the sun for hours at end.

Venetian courtesans, unlike courtesans of other cities, revealed more flesh. Their gowns were usually low-cut across the breast or over the shoulder, often with an open stomach and ladder lacing. Courtesans of cities outside of Venice had variations and different styles of dress. Roman courtesans wore gowns of Spanish cut, with buttons up to the neck and thick neck ruffles. This less-revealing style may have been the result of the presence of the Vatican within the city, which made them feel a higher sense of faith and morality within such a holy realm. The courtesans of Florence wore off shoulder gowns with a neck scarf and a plunging neck-line. Sometimes, it is said that courtesans could be seen sloppily wearing men’s clothing during the Carnival season. Some cut their hair very short, like a man’s cut, in order to attract men who may be homosexual. Although some men were homosexual, it was not accepted of the city, and the courtesans had to create the illusion of a man through their appearance (Gilded City).

-àOne part of society that was known for their extravagant sleeves was the togati, which were the male patricians and citizens over 25 years old. Their uniform was in the form of a toga, and there were four standard cuts of the sleeves that determined their ranking, limited to a different social and political level, giving certain people obvious power over others. Women were not allowed to wear this uniform of the togati, but what they wore was influenced and controlled by this body. The togati passed several laws restricting what the women of Venice could wear. Regulations included the size of their sleeves, the amount of trim and the type of fabric that could be used. The togati took pleasure in regulating the sleeve cuts.           

            While women of Venice were harshly restricted from participating in society, they also had limited freedom to wear the clothes they wished. Even in 1437, there was an incident in Venice when women were threatened with excommunication for wearing gowns with long trains (Herald). After the era of the International Gothic fashion trend in the 1400s, where sleeves were very long and wide-bell shaped, the Senate passed a strict law. This law abandoned the right of women to wear sleeves over a specified width, and also a high-standing collar that touched the chin. If these laws were broken, not only the women were heavily fined, but also their husband or father, and the tailor (Newton). There were also regulations governing the expenditure on the fabrics that were used for these clothes. The Senate ruled out clothing of gold or silver stuffs and also embroidery of metal threads and expensive silk cloths. There was also a banning of long trains because of the amount of material that was needed to make it.               

            One of the most important features of Venetian fashion that makes it stand out over other cultures is their influence from foreigners. In order to make their own fashion distinctive and different, they used elements from other cultures’ clothing to make it something of their own. Venetian clothing during the Early Modern Period was incomparable to the rest of Italy. Venetian dress not only stood out in Italy, but was distinct throughout Europe. What made Venice fashion different was their gathering of parts of other cultures’ clothing from Europe and even the East. Venice had the opportunity to become aware of some of the styles of the East because of their prolific trade and commerce industry. With this resource, they were able to create a connection to this culture completely foreign to Europe (Herald). What should also be considered as an effect on the foreign influence of Venetian dress is the immigration that was prevalent in 16^th century Venice. By the end of the quattrocento, immigrants included Germans, Slavs, Albanian, Dalmtians, Turks, Mamluks, Arabs, Africans, Persians, Greeks, and Spanish Jews (Brown). The presence of all these foreigners living could have easily had an influence in the fashions of Venice.

            Many of the influx of styles that emerged in Venice were in parallel to the political conditions of Venice and their interactions within and outside of Italy. For instance, in the early 1500’s, Venice had regained control over Cremona in a brief league which included France. With this new political change, there brought about the appearance of the ‘Milanese bonnet,’ or bareta a la Milanese, from the dress of the castellan of Cremona, Annibal Augusolo. His innovations brought the term bareta a la Milanese to Venice, making Venice distinct because of their two styles of hats during the sixteenth century, bareta a la Milanese and a la francese. These new styles of caps were certainly different from the small round caps worn by the Venetian gentlemen of the councils and young men. Another political change occurred when the league between Venice and France was suddenly joined by Hungary, Poland and Russia. The joining of these cultures brought about changes in Venetian clothing. The Russians, for example, arrived in Venice with their large soft caps with a long drooping point and lined with fur. 

            The two main influences of Venetian dress came from France and Germany. The terms a la francese and a la todesca were popular adjectives at the time, yet the Venetians may not have fully understood the accurate fashions of these countries. Dress was different in various provinces and dukedoms within the two countries and the there were the separate countries of Brittany and the Netherlands. All of these locations had their own ‘national’ dress which the Venetians couldn’t have had an understanding for and therefore generalized their fashions with ignorance. Although they had little knowledge of the specific trends of France and Germany, they certainly managed to adopt beautiful features to add to their own fashion. For example, the zazzara, a large fluffed-out style of dressing the air, became present in Venice thanks to the Germans. At some Venetian dances, German fashion was present because of the gold clothed turcha, a long gown that opened in the front that had traces of dress in Turkey.

            What makes Venice dress stand out over other cultures is their use of Eastern influences. One feature of Venetian style that describes the Eastern influences in Venice is through women’s chopines. Because of the wealth and success of the major trade port in Venice which connected Europe and the East, the city was able to consume parts of Eastern culture. The exact origin of the chopines is unclear, however there are several opinions. One hypothesis is that they emanated from Turkish women’s bulky bathhouse clogs, used to protect feet from contact of heated and slick marble. Another source says that the style came from the Orient before the Renaissance time during the time of the ancient Greeks. The style of these high shoes may have come from the actors that wore platformed shoes on stage in order to make themselves more noticeable to the audience. The biggest opinion people have with the East and the chopine shoes is related to the Chinese. The Chinese theories of Confucius seem to be present in the Venetian chopines because of the his ideals of female confinement and subjugation. Like the footbinding of the Chinese women, Venetian women felt physically confined in their high platform heels. Another ideology of the East that seemed present in the Venetian footwear is the concept of women’s feet as sexual objects. The Chinese loved the idea of having beautifully enclosed feet kept hidden under their garments. This concept is similar in Venice, except for the intention of permanently disfiguring the feet. In the West, women’s feet were seen as a symbol of chastity that had to be hidden under their dresses. Like the Chinese, chopines were representative of wealthy and status. Very wealthy noble women in Venice demonstrated their status by wearing very tall chopines. Just like in China, women’s feet were reflective of their status, because these women were expected to bind their feet into the ideal tiny foot. 

            Not only did Eastern cultures influence the designs of footwear, but they also influence the designs in textile patterns. By the fourteenth century, evidence of this influence was beginning to show in Venetian clothing. On ceremonial occasions, expensive fabrics would be seen with patterns in the subject of nature, specifically present was the design of a pomegranate. The pomegranate was considered to be the symbol of immortality and fertility in Eastern religions. This can be compared to how the Chinese used the lotus flower and the Indian culture used the buta in their patterns. The asymmetrical, repeated diagonal emphasis of Venetian gowns and headdresses are strongly comparable to the Chinese fashions. There was also a presence of Chinese “monstrous dragon-like creatures and the Chinese ‘tschi’ symbol of a cloud formation with sun-rays mingled with the griffins, eagles and stags” that was clearly shown in the garments of Venetian women. (Herald).

            As I mentioned before, a large part of the influence of foreigners in Venetian dress is due Venice’s huge success in trade. Venice became well known throughout the world for its flourishing trade centers and textile production, which connected the Western world with the East. Their distinct location gave them an advantage over other Italian cities to connect with other trading ports from across the world. As one Venetian patrician claimed, the “for a certain novelty of placement and opportune position, it was by itself the only form in all the universe so miraculously disposed.” Thanks to Marco Polo’s opening of the silk route to Venice in the thirteenth century, Venetian merchants established links between the Mongol Empire, Persia, Armenia, the Caucasus, and Asia Minor. The city was able to acquire many exotic goods used for garments, such as porcelain and pearl from the Far East; gems, mineral dyes, peacock feathers, and a profusion of textiles like silks, cottons, and brocades from Egypt and Asia Minor; minerals from Germany; wool and woven cloth from Flanders and England (Brown).

 Silk production was one of their most produced and traded textiles, and by 1510, became one of the centers of silk production in the Western world (pearl of Venice). Their outstanding production of silk flourished from the fourteenth century until the early seventeenth century (Herald). Because of Venice’s convenient location, became a cosmopolitan city, rich with the demand from merchants from all over Europe and beyond who wished to practice trade. Venice had already been trading with the Islamic world as early as the ninth century, and continued it in the sixteenth century (Brown). Venice’s wealth and fame due to this luxurious fabric brought about several laws and regulations to ensure the quality and perfection of the silk. After 1450, laws were passed to prohibit the use of second-grade and waste silks in the weaving of drappi da parangon, or cloths of comparison, which included satins, velvets, and brocades. There were also guild inspections that had to be passed to ensure the use of colored thread markers to signify they were made from the finest silk threads, dyes, and weaving techniques. If the quality of making silk was not up to these standards, the silk would be confiscated, and the weavers and sellers would be heavily fined (lower grade silks).

            There were two types of silk materials, due to the different grades of silk fibers. Seta leale, or “true silk,” was the most prized textile that was produced from “unwinding an intact cocoon in a basin of hot water to form one long, very strong, continuous thread which is a process called reeling.” The second type of silk, which was the less desirable fabric, was called “double silk,” which “was produced when two silkworms were put too close together in the raisings during their metamorphosis, and so ended up wrapped in a single cocoon.” This type of lower grade silk was demanded by some entrepreneurs who needed it to produce fabrics at a lower cost for local and international consumers (lower grade silks).  Some other fabrics heavily used and produced in Venice was wool, cloth of gold, and fur, or a blend of wool and silk. Venetian women often used these fabrics for their gowns, especially wool, which they often called pano. Red was a common color used for both men and women’s clothing. It was specifically used for the men’s Toga, yet they also used black and a dark shade of purple, called paonazzo.

            At one point during the Early Modern Period of Venice, there were a number of wars that caused changes in what textiles the Venetians could wear and trade. During the 1510’s, the city passed laws to reflect the limit of expense that could be spent on clothing to conserve funds for the wars. Fabric had to be plainer, without their usual patterned designs (pearl of Venice). There was also an instance when government agencies and heads of state recruited foreign artisans and entrepreneurs to promote local industries, while at the same time passing restrictions on the importation of competing goods. They also attempted to prohibit skilled producers, both foreign and native, from emigrating (Matthew). Although this was a time of serious limitations due to political situations, it did not last, and by the 1520’s, Venetians were able to return to their extravagant fabrics and designs (pearl of Venice).

during my research, i came across an interesting theory about the venetians’ fashion in the book “the dress of the venetians, 1495-1525″ by stella mary newton. although we often think that women are the ones whose clothing is more exravegent and well-noticed, it was the men of venice during the early modern period whose clothing was more prominent. men’s fashions were evolving just as much as women’s were, yet they were more important at the time since they were allowed out into the public of the city. eventhough women were only allowed to enter into the city when going to obvious occasions such as to church or a festival, they were very limited to what they could wear. it was their one time to show off their beautiful clothing, but there was a clear idea of what ideal beauty was for women. while men could dress in almost anyway they could, women were given specific laws on what they could or could not wear. whether is was the color of the veils they could wear or the size of their sleeves, they lived in a city where they could be fined for disobeying these laws. i find it very peculiar that there were actual laws passed as to what clothing was acceptable. another point that i came across in this book was that most venetian painters of thie time, such as carpaccio, mainly painted men, and rarely women. the women that were painted were usually courtisans or mistresses, and not what is thought to be women of quality. one of the only artists to paint a respectable woman of this time was durer, who wasn’t even venetian. carpaccio gives very detailed accounts of men’s fashions in his series of figure studies. this is a very important idea that i suddenly came across that i will emphasis in my paper. 

this is a flickr account that shows several paintings of venetian dress during the 16th century that helps understand some of the styles

There are many elements that encompass Clothing and Fashions of Venice during the Early Modern Period. In my paper, I would like to point out what I think are the most essential and important parts of venetian fashion. First, before even discussing the clothing, I will talk about the culture and society of Venice at this time briefly. this is important because society affects fashion in many ways. gender and social classes played a large role in what certain people of society could wear. what a working woman could wear was much different than what a wealthy woman could wear. women were symbols of beauty in venice, so the more elite women were expected to dress their best and look as extravagant as possible. women’s fashion was very elaborate and eccentric, with many accessories and variations of their clothing. although i will talk much about women and their lifestyles and clothing, i also want to mention what the men wore. men also had many features to their clothing, and varied as far as their status. 

another very important part of venetian fashion was the courtesan. courtesans were apart of the working women status who were prostitutes or entertainers. their dress was often different than the average venetian woman, and their fashion often spread new trends and ideas about clothing. they usually wore revealing dresses with several pieces of jewelry to catch attention to themselves.

without the sources of art, we would not be able to fully envision the fashions of venice during the early modern period. artists such as titian, bellini, carpaccio, palma di vecchio and pietro longhi demonstrate the clothing that venetians wore through their artwork. carpaccio’s “two venetian ladies,” bellini’s “doge of venice,”and  titian’s “man with a quilted sleeve”  are just a few paintings that reveal what the venetians wore and what social class they belonged to. another important point to make about the fashion in venice during this period is their inspiration from other foreign cultures. their interaction with northern europe, such as england, eastern cultures, and other cities of italy such as florence, had a large impact on venetian styles. this influence could have been the result of the trade that venice had with so many cultures, especially through their textile and silk industries. it is also important to note how venice influenced other cultures and their clothing trends.

For my research paper, I would like to focus my attention on the clothing and fashion of Venice during the early modern period. A lot could tell us about the society of Venice by the way they dressed and what fashions they had. Depending on what social class you belonged to determined what you could and could not wear. Gender roles were important as well, especially with the confiding and extravagant outfits they wore. The very tall high heels the upper class women had to wear was restricting on where they could venture in the city. Artists can also reveal a lot about the fashions of Venetians. Artists such as David and Bellini show us how particular people dressed and what role they played in society. Fashion in art allows the styles to be flourished and passed on throughout the years.

An article in the New York Times on April 13, 2003, mentioned that the looting and destruction of the Iraqi National Museum is “likely to be reckoned as one of the greatest cultural disasters in recent Middle Eastern history.”This event became front-page news across newspapers around the world, along with plenty of news reports and photographs of the looting. The terrible attack on this cultural center in Baghdad created upheaval and sorrow, but fortunately there have been steps and ideas to reconstruct it. Although there has been some progress, the museum that once held thousands of monumental pieces of the ancient past will never compete to the way it once was. The destruction of the Iraq National Museum occurred on April 10^th, 2003 in Baghdad, when American troops entered in order to overthrow the rule of Saddam Hussein. With the chaos and violence taking over the city, looters invaded the museum and managed to carry away at least 170,000 objects and destroy the museum within 48 hours. The 28 galleries of the museum with vaults enclosed with huge steel doors guarding storage chambers had been completely raided. “Of the 451 exhibit cases, 27 were smashed or cut open.” Witnesses described these criminals as being from impoverished areas of the city where frustration against Saddam Hussein was the most intense. The crowd was a mixture of men, women, and children armed with guns, clubs, and knives. There were also sightings of middle-class, professional looking thieves with glasscutters. American troops only participated in sporadic interventions to protect the museum against looting. Officials at the museum were extremely angered, including Abdul Ridhar Muhammad, who said “Please tell this to President Bush. Please remind him that he promised to liberate the Iraqi people, but that this is not a liberation, this is a humiliation. Efforts have been made by archeological organizations, museum officials, UNESCO, Interpol, the FBI, and various government agencies to salvage the treasured pieces and compile an accurate inventory of the objects that were stolen or damaged. They also plan on making policies in order to get the looted items back and protect the museum from future events. USAID and other federal agencies also plan on financing repair of the museum, needed technology, and staffing. 

 I would suggest that the best option is to keep the artifacts in the safe underground vaults until conditions in the country stabilize and settle down. Violence and turmoil still continues to this day even after 5 years of this Middle Eastern conflict.  It is too risky to expose precious artifacts to such an insecure environment because the situation could become even worse than it was in April of 2003. A museum like that of the Iraq National Museum has the duty of preserving parts of a society’s past and culture, and in order to do this, they must take the best measures to ensure that these pieces of history will live on for years to come.  

after being in college for about two years, i have already taken two anthropology classes, including the introduction class and visual anthropology. i loved both of them, and even considered for a while to be an art history and anthropology double major. i think that after taking these classes, i have developed a pretty good understanding of the field and its writers. my visual anthropology class introduced me to how the visual arts are tied in with anthropology. in those classes, we discussed several times how culture alters our perceptions of art and how art can represent a culture. we also discussed how cultures such as western cultures represent “the other” in their art, and how it is perceived differently than the truth.  because many people are confused by what anthropology is and because it could be a very broad or loose term, i should introduce what anthropology is. according to fernie’s definition, anthropology is studying human organization, their relationships, and their relevant artifacts. anthropologists study the links between the past and the present. they avoid making judgments about different cultures and accept a culture for what it is. they often study cultures that are considered the “other” because it is difficult to investigate their own cultures. to relate anthropologists to art historians, anthropologists relate a work of art to its society, and art historians concentrate on a work of art to the exclusion of its context.  in the readings on anthropology by fagg, oguibe, and arieff, i was able to recall many discussions i had before. the readings by fagg and oguibe concentrate on african art and “primitivism.” Westerners have developed opinionated to say that african art is not really art. when westerners see african art, they think that it is not art because it looks as though they are just weapons and masks used by people who are not as developed as they are.  this shows westerners ethnocentricity about art and their culture. another issue about this “primitive” art is that there have been many artists, especially in the post impressionist or 20th century, who have been inspired by african art or primitive people, specifically picasso and gougain. some say that these artists fell into these cultures because western art was drawn out and ran out of other inspirations. we look at some of picasso’s works, such as Demoisselles d’Avignon, and notice the african inspirations. but it is interesting how westerners started to become interested in african or primitive art only when great masters of the west, such as picasso and gougain introduced them.  when looking at areiff’s article about chinese foot binding and liu’s art work surrounding this idea, it is interesting to see how an artist expresses her culture through her art. when she moved to the united states, she incorporated western art techniques with her own chinese techniques and styles. she wanted americans to get a reaction about the horrible conditions of the chinese women, and make sure that they dont have the tradition stereotype of them. her images are graphic, in the ways she shows the women’s binded feet, which is something that in the chinese culture, is a taboo.  anthropology is definitely connected with art history and the understanding of art history. it helps us to see art not just visually, but through the culture of it and how different people perceive them. it also allows art lovers to appreciate art that was never thought of as art, such as african art. anthropology gives us a very worldly view of art and opens our eyes up to many different ideas.  

Conservation has become a heavily debated issue. over the years, people have argued over whether or not we should restore works of art or not. those you believe that it is not necessary to restore rely on their position that the end product of restoration is a kind of forgery, no matter how closely it resembles the original. they think that the aged and damaged look of the piece brings a certain aesthetic appeal. a painting that becomes dingy, warn, and aged brings an appreciation of the years that has past from when we look at it now and when it was originally painted. we appreciate the spirit that the work of art brings, and it takes us back to the day it was created. it shows the weight of history and an adoration of what is still suriving. just like the ruins in rome, we go to see them to appreciate what is still left and imagine what it was like to be in ancient rome.

 those who are for conserving art and restoring it believe that the most important aspect of art that we must save is the artist’s original intentions and ideas that he wanted to express through their art. they believe that the aged look of a work of art is misleading, and we must restore it to make it seem as though we are looking at it from when it was originally created. it is essential that we dont see the paintings fade away because we need to see the expressive ideas that the artists wanted to reveal. even if the newly conserved work of art is more aesthetically pleasing, at least the message is being shown. if it looks like it hasnt aged since it was originally done, then we can also still be aware of the date it was done. art restoration can’t show the time, but we can still be aware and appreciate it.

The last supper is one of the most controversial works of art when it comes to conservation. over the hundreds and hundreds of years since it was completed, people have attempted over and over to restore it back to its original condition and come up with ideas of what is the best way to conserve it. some have said that the condition of leonardo’s work before all the restorations is not even recognizable. leonardo’s representational interpretation of the even can not even been seen. not only was it the restorers who damaged the conservation of the painting, but it was unintentional events. the painting was damaged during world war two. it has also suffered from issues with the water table of the building, the intense humidity that seeps through the room, the over-crowding of tourists, and the vibrations from buses in the street. every minor detail is a factor in the conservation of this masterpiece. now, scientists and experts have gone to great measures to protect this painting as best they can. there have also expert art conservators who have revealed some of the original painting of da vinci. art historians have discovered the initial intentions of da vinci and the prime scene in which he depicted. without the help of art conservation, art historians would never be able to learn so much about this spectacular masterpiece that has been talked about for centuries.

meyer schapiro was born in Lithuania in 1904 and died in 1996 at the age of 91 in his home of Greenwich Village, New York. schapiro had a long life of being a scholar, with his attendance of Columbia university to earn his PhD and later became a professor. schapiro had a long range of interests in the arts, ranging from early christian, byzantine, medeival, and modern art. his specialty was especially in romanesque art. what made him interesting in his style of writing and teaching was that he enjoyed relating art history to similar fields, such as anthropology, psychology, and sociology.  Schapiro is also well known for his Marxist approach to art history, one that is unique and unlike anyone else’s approach. he is quoted as once saying: “The great interest of the Marxist approach lies not only in the attempt to interpret historically changing relations of art and economic life in the light of a general theory of society but also in the weight given to the differences and conflicts within the social group as motors of development, and to the effects of these on outlook, religion, morality, and philosophical ideas.” Schapiro was also passionate about the attention of style. he felt that it was only possible if social conditions were right for the reception. Romanesque art was his forte. he was one out of a few who had seriously studied the technique, materials, proportions, gestures, costumes, and expression of Romanesque art, especially French Romanesque. Schapiro was also radical towards the government during the great depression. he wrote articles to the american artists’ congress in 1936, with the theme of the relationship between style and culture. he tried emphasizing that the marxist history of art does not give up the techniques of research into details, but insists upon scientific method.  some of meyer schapiro’s most renowned works are “Romanesque Art,” “The Romanesque Sculpture of Moissac,” “The Parma Ildefonsus: a Romanesque illuminated,”and “The Nature of Abstract Art.” 

the narrative i chose to research is the biblical story of rebekah (rebecca). her story is in the book of genesis, 24. she was the daughter of Bethuel, the wife of isaac, the grand daughter of Nahor and Milcah, sister of Laban, and mother of Esau and jacob. he name means in arabic ‘a tie-rope for animals” or “noose.”  her story begins when isaac’s father Abraham sends his servant Haran to Nahor to find a suitable wife for his son, because he did not want his son to marry a native canaanite woman and go to his homeland. on route to Nahor, the servant saw a well to water his camels, and remembered that it was the time of day when the women go out to draw water from the well. the servant prayed to the Lord, asking him to make the woman whom he asked for a drink of water be the woman that his master appointed for his son isaac. when the servant approached rebekah and asked for a drink from her water jug, she graciously offered, along with drawing some water for the camels. it was then that the servant knew that rebekah was meant to be the kin of his master, and gave her beautiful gold jewelry. rebekah was very anxious to leave the home of her father and mother, and followed to servant back to Isaac and Abraham’s home, where she would marry. she gave birth to twins, jacob and esau.  The two paintings that i chose for comparison of this narrative is “Rebekah at the Well” by Biambatista Piazetta, and “Eliezer and Rebecca” by Marc Chagall. Piazetta’s version of the scene from the bible, done in the 18th century, is realistic and idealistic. the colors portray a certain softness especially shown on rebekah. rebekah is shown as very feminine and innocent. the way she looks at the servant and the way she leans back almost reveals a certain fear and naiveté.  the holds her jug under her arm, as she is standing at the well also. the servant, eliezer, is holding the jewelry he offers to her at first sight of her. the other painting by Chagall shows the scene in a different way. his version is more modern, done in the 20th century. he shows very little attention to detail, realism or idealism in his composition. elizer and rebecca are shown on a hill, without a well, and rebecca is holding her water jug on top of her head, instead of under her arm. the dress of characters are different as well. eliezer is wearing a full body garment, and rebecca is wearing brightly colored clothing of an ethnic theme. he hair is short and black, and shows little innocence and softness like how piazetta portrayed the scene in his painting. 

The patrons that I chose for our Patrons, Collector, or Dealer project is Claribel and Etta Cone. I decided to base my research on the Cone sisters because I shared similar taste and aesthetic value that they had in choosing works their favorite works of art. The Cone sisters were from a wealthy German-Jewish family, and used their financial stabilities to their advantage by traveling to Europe and discovering the many art movements that existed. They also were able to learn from their dear friends, Gertrude and Leo Stein, to meet artists whom inspired their collections.  The Cone sisters focus in their collection in the Baltimore Museum of Art is an eye for the contemporary modern art. The movements they concentrated on were Impressionism, Fauvism, Post-Impressionism, Cubism, and Surrealism. They had a love for discovering artists who had not yet been appreciated, such as Matisse, Cezanne, Picasso, Degas, Van Gogh, Manet, Gauguin, and Corot. The subject of most of their artworks were identifiable, but a majority of them depicted portaits or interiors. Some of them were landscapes, but even they had figures in the scene. The Cone sisters played a significant role in the evolution of modern art by establishing one of the best collections of art in America. The Wall Street journal called their collection “…the most illuminating installation of a museum’s permanent collection in recent history.” In their wills, they wanted to give all their prized artworks to the Baltimore Museum of Art if “the spirit of appreciation of modern art in Baltimore becomes improved.” Their collection of approximately 3,000 pieces is an accomplishment and an inspiration for not only Baltimore culture but for American culture. It pioneered many of the modern art collections of our day.Their collection included the most extravagant Matisse works ever seen. The sisters became very close with Matisse, meeting with him on many occasions for purchasing and creating portraits of the women.  The Matisse works included in the collection are the Blue Nude, Pink Nude, Large Reclining Nude, and many other sculpture and sketches. The collection also includes many of Picasso’s pieces, like the Mother and Child, Boy Leading a Horse and other pieces during his Blue Period.